Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (STAT) proteins have essential functions in normal cytokine signaling and are frequently constitutively activated in human tumor cells (Yu and Jove, 2004). STATs have key roles in regulating cell proliferation, survival, angiogenesis and immune function (Parsons and Parsons, 2004; Yu et al., 2009). One of seven different STAT family members, Stat5, is constitutively activated by non-receptor tyrosine kinases (Herrington et al., 2000; Huang et al., 2002; Klejman et al., 2002; Nieborowska-Skorska et al., 1999; Yu and Jove, 2004). Bcr-Abl, an oncogenic non-receptor tyrosine kinase activated in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), induces persistent tyrosyl phosphorylation of Stat5 (Bromberg et al., 1999; Nelson et al., 2006; Quintas-Cardama et al., 2006; Shah et al., 2004; Yu and Jove, 2004). Bcr-Abl kinase cooperates with Src family kinases (SFKs) to activate Stat5 in CML cell transformation (Klejman et al., 2002; Wilson et al., 2002). SFKs, also non-receptor tyrosine kinases, phosphorylate critical cellular substrates such STAT family members, including Stat5, thereby regulating oncogenic signaling pathways (Bromann et al., 2004; Parsons and Parsons, 2004; Silva, 2004; Yu and Jove, 2004). In particular, the SFKs, have been shown to cooperate with Bcr-Abl to activate Stat5 signaling in CML cells (Klejman et al., 2002; Lionberger et al., 2000; Wilson et al., 2002).
STAT signaling is currently being investigated as a new molecular target pathway for human cancer treatment (Yu and Jove, 2004; Yu et al., 2009). In Stat5 signaling, two phosphorylated Stat monomers dimerize through reciprocal phosphotyrosyl-SH2 domain interactions (Bromberg et al., 1999; Yu and Jove, 2004). The phosphorylated Stat5 dimers then translocate to the nucleus and bind to the promoters of specific Stat5 responsive genes (Bromberg et al., 1999; Nelson et al., 2006; Yu and Jove, 2004). Persistent activation of Stat5 has a critical role in cell growth and survival in human hematopoietic malignancies (Carlesso et al., 1996; Yu and Jove, 2004). In contrast, blockade of Stat5 signaling down-regulates these down-stream target genes of Stat5, associated with induction of apoptosis in CML cells (Horita et al., 2000; Shah et al., 2004; Yu and Jove, 2004).
Indirubin is the major active anti-tumor ingredient of a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, Danggui Longhui Wan, which is a mixture of 11 herbal ingredients and used for CML treatment (Xiao et al., 2002). IRDs were shown to inhibit CDK1/cyclin B, CDK2/cyclinA, CDK2/cycling E, GSK 3β and CDK5/p25, leading to cell growth inhibition in human cancer cells (Hoessel et al., 1999; Marko et al., 2001; Vougogiannopoulou et al., 2008). IRDs also inhibit phosphorylation of Stat5 in acute myeloid leukemia cells (Zhou et al., 2009). Recently, it has been demonstrated that IRDs blocked constitutive Stat3 signaling in epithelial tumor cells such as breast and prostate cancer (Nam et al., 2005a).
Previously, clinical studies indicated that indirubin is a promising anticancer therapeutic agent for CML treatment, showing low toxicity (Eisenbrand et al., 2004). However, the mechanism of action of IRDs in CML remains largely unknown. There is a need to develop more indirubin derivatives and uses thereof in treating cancer (e.g. CML).